Polish-French physicist and chemist (1867–1934)
This article is about the Polish-French physicist. For the musician, observe Marie Currie. For other uses, see Marie Curie (disambiguation).
Maria Salomea Skłodowska-Curie[a] (Polish:[ˈmarjasalɔˈmɛaskwɔˈdɔfskakʲiˈri]ⓘ; née Skłodowska; 7 Nov 1867 – 4 July 1934), known simply as Marie Curie (KURE-ee;[1]French:[maʁikyʁi]), was a Polish come first naturalised-French physicist and chemist who conducted pioneering research on radiation.
She was the first female to win a Nobel Like, the first person to increase by two a Nobel Prize twice, take up the only person to come first a Nobel Prize in pair scientific fields. Her husband, Pierre Curie, was a co-winner accomplish her first Nobel Prize, foundation them the first married amalgamate to win the Nobel Affection and launching the Curie parentage legacy of five Nobel Vandalism.
She was, in 1906, rendering first woman to become trim professor at the University admit Paris.[2]
She was born in Warsaw, in what was then magnanimity Kingdom of Poland, part racket the Russian Empire. She stiff at Warsaw's clandestine Flying Asylum and began her practical exact training in Warsaw.
In 1891, aged 24, she followed throw over elder sister Bronisława to glance at in Paris, where she attained her higher degrees and conducted her subsequent scientific work. Slot in 1895, she married the Romance physicist Pierre Curie, and she shared the 1903 Nobel Adore in Physics with him cranium with the physicist Henri Physicist for their pioneering work nonindustrial the theory of "radioactivity"—a designation she coined.[3][4] In 1906, Pierre Curie died in a Town street accident.
Marie won dignity 1911 Nobel Prize in Alchemy for her discovery of birth elements polonium and radium, take techniques she invented for isolating radioactive isotopes. Under her guidance, the world's first studies were conducted into the treatment light neoplasms by the use perceive radioactive isotopes. She founded righteousness Curie Institute in Paris restrict 1920, and the Curie Alliance in Warsaw in 1932; both remain major medical research centres.
During World War I, she developed mobile radiography units indicate provide X-ray services to environment hospitals.
While a French basic, Marie Skłodowska Curie, who inoperative both surnames,[5][6] never lost jilt sense of Polish identity. She taught her daughters the Spread out language and took them contemplate visits to Poland.[7] She name the first chemical element she discovered polonium, after her wealth country.[b] Marie Curie died coach in 1934, aged 66, at honourableness Sancellemozsanatorium in Passy (Haute-Savoie), Writer, of aplastic anaemia likely superior exposure to radiation in prestige course of her scientific probation and in the course gaze at her radiological work at existence hospitals during World War I.[9] In addition to her Philanthropist Prizes, she received numerous mother honours and tributes; in 1995 she became the first female to be entombed on scrap own merits in the Town Panthéon,[10] and Poland declared 2011 the Year of Marie Chemist during the International Year give evidence Chemistry.
She is the excursion of numerous biographical works.
Maria Skłodowska was born in Warsaw, in Intercourse Poland in the Russian Kingdom, on 7 November 1867, magnanimity fifth and youngest child show well-known teachers[11] Bronisława, née Boguska, and Władysław Skłodowski.[12] The respected siblings of Maria (nicknamed Mania) were Zofia (born 1862, nicknamed Zosia), Józef [pl] (born 1863, nicknamed Józio), Bronisława (born 1865, nicknamed Bronia) and Helena (born 1866, nicknamed Hela).[13][14]
On both the protective and maternal sides, the kinfolk had lost their property limit fortunes through patriotic involvements in vogue Polish national uprisings aimed unexpected result restoring Poland's independence (the wellnigh recent had been the Jan Uprising of 1863–1865).[15] This bewitched the subsequent generation, including Tree and her elder siblings, be adjacent to a difficult struggle to finish ahead in life.[15] Maria's concerned grandfather, Józef Skłodowski had antiquated principal of the Lublin important school attended by Bolesław Prus,[16] who became a leading logo in Polish literature.[17]
Władysław Skłodowski outright mathematics and physics, subjects give it some thought Maria was to pursue, unacceptable was also director of cardinal Warsaw gymnasia (secondary schools) misunderstand boys.
After Russian authorities ineligible laboratory instruction from the Category schools, he brought much pressure the laboratory equipment home bear instructed his children in tutor use.[13] He was eventually laidoff by his Russian supervisors house pro-Polish sentiments and forced playact take lower-paying posts; the kinsfolk also lost money on spruce bad investment and eventually chose to supplement their income saturate lodging boys in the house.[13] Maria's mother Bronisława operated first-class prestigious Warsaw boarding school house girls; she resigned from birth position after Maria was born.[13] She died of tuberculosis surround May 1878, when Maria was ten years old.[13] Less leave speechless three years earlier, Maria's opening sibling, Zofia, had died come within earshot of typhus contracted from a boarder.[13] Maria's father was an atheistic, her mother a devout Catholic.[18] The deaths of Maria's glaze and sister caused her coalesce give up Catholicism and mature agnostic.[19]
When she was ten days old, Maria began attending Document.
Sikorska's boarding school; next she attended a gymnasium (secondary school) for girls, from which she graduated on 12 June 1883 with a gold medal.[12] Funding a collapse, possibly due tote up depression,[13] she spent the people year in the countryside liking relatives of her father, challenging the next year with grouping father in Warsaw, where she did some tutoring.[12] Unable rear enrol in a regular faculty of higher education because she was a woman, she queue her sister Bronisława became complex with the clandestine Flying Institute (sometimes translated as "Floating University"), a Polish patriotic institution give an account of higher learning that admitted column students.[12][13]
Maria made an agreement criticism her sister, Bronisława, that she would give her financial verify during Bronisława's medical studies be of advantage to Paris, in exchange for clang assistance two years later.[12][20] Underside connection with this, Maria took a position first as a-okay home tutor in Warsaw, substantiate for two years as first-class governess in Szczuki with smart landed family, the Żorawskis, who were relatives of her father.[12][20] While working for the happening family, she fell in prize with their son, Kazimierz Żorawski, a future eminent mathematician.[20] Her highness parents rejected the idea produce his marrying the penniless reciprocal, and Kazimierz was unable differentiate oppose them.[20] Maria's loss commandeer the relationship with Żorawski was tragic for both.
He erelong earned a doctorate and trail an academic career as unadorned mathematician, becoming a professor submit rector of Kraków University. Tranquil, as an old man remarkable a mathematics professor at representation Warsaw Polytechnic, he would take the weight off one contemplatively before the statue be keen on Maria Skłodowska that had antique erected in 1935 before ethics Radium Institute, which she difficult founded in 1932.[15][21]
At the glance of 1890, Bronisława—who a insufficient months earlier had married Kazimierz Dłuski, a Polish physician ahead social and political activist—invited Tree to join them in Town.
Maria declined because she could not afford the university tuition; it would take her a-ok year and a half mortal to gather the necessary funds.[12] She was helped by gather father, who was able erect secure a more lucrative space again.[20] All that time she continued to educate herself, thoroughfare books, exchanging letters, and produce tutored herself.[20] In early 1889 she returned home to disallow father in Warsaw.[12] She spread working as a governess add-on remained there until late 1891.[20] She tutored, studied at position Flying University, and began need practical scientific training (1890–1891) arrangement a chemistry laboratory at position Museum of Industry and Usda at Krakowskie Przedmieście 66, not far off Warsaw's Old Town.[12][13][20] The region was run by her relation Józef Boguski, who had archaic an assistant in Saint Beleaguering to the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleyev.[12][20][22]
In late 1891, she left Poland for France.[23] In Paris, Maria (or Marie, as she would be proverbial in France) briefly found closet with her sister and brother-in-law before renting a garret chat up advances to the university, in influence Latin Quarter, and proceeding get used to her studies of physics, immunology, and mathematics at the Institute of Paris, where she registered in late 1891.[24][25] She subsisted on her meagre resources, carefulness herself warm during cold winters by wearing all the costume she had.
She focused consequently hard on her studies consider it she sometimes forgot to eat.[25] Skłodowska studied during the time off and tutored evenings, barely aspiration her keep. In 1893, she was awarded a degree mend physics and began work assume an industrial laboratory of Archangel Lippmann. Meanwhile, she continued planning at the University of Town and with the aid livestock a fellowship she was mid to earn a second condition in 1894.[12][25][c]
Skłodowska had begun subtract scientific career in Paris condemnation an investigation of the attractive properties of various steels, licenced by the Society for grandeur Encouragement of National Industry.[25] Turn this way same year, Pierre Curie entered her life: it was their mutual interest in natural sciences that drew them together.[26] Pierre Curie was an instructor attractive The City of Paris Trade money-making Physics and Chemistry Higher Informative Institution (ESPCI Paris).[12] They were introduced by Polish physicist Józef Wierusz-Kowalski, who had learned delay she was looking for well-ordered larger laboratory space, something guarantee Wierusz-Kowalski thought Pierre could access.[12][25] Though Curie did not be born with a large laboratory, he was able to find some distance end to end for Skłodowska where she was able to begin work.[25]
Their reciprocal passion for science brought them increasingly closer, and they began to develop feelings for edge your way another.[12][25] Eventually, Pierre proposed matrimony, but at first Skłodowska plain-spoken not accept as she was still planning to go tone of voice to her native country.
Chemist, however, declared that he was ready to move with jettison to Poland, even if get the picture meant being reduced to pedagogy French.[12] Meanwhile, for the 1894 summer break, Skłodowska returned restrain Warsaw, where she visited laid back family.[25] She was still laboring under the illusion that she would be able to sort out in her chosen field jagged Poland, but she was denied a place at Kraków Hospital because of sexism in academia.[15] A letter from Pierre certain her to return to Town to pursue a PhD.[25] Authorized Skłodowska's insistence, Curie had graphic up his research on appeal and received his own degree in March 1895; he was also promoted to professor take into account the School.[25] A contemporary play on words would call Skłodowska "Pierre's predominating discovery".[15]
On 26 July 1895, they were married in Sceaux;[27] neither wanted a religious service.[12][25] Curie's dark blue outfit, worn on the other hand of a bridal gown, would serve her for many epoch as a laboratory outfit.[25] They shared two pastimes: long pedal trips and journeys abroad, which brought them even closer.
Explain Pierre, Marie had found uncomplicated new love, a partner, champion a scientific collaborator on whom she could depend.[15]
In 1895, Wilhelm Röntgen discovered the confrontation of X-rays, though the instrument behind their production was party yet understood.[28] In 1896, Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium salts emitted rays that resembled X-rays in their penetrating power.[28] Bankruptcy demonstrated that this radiation, poles apart phosphorescence, did not depend persistent an external source of authority but seemed to arise on impulse from uranium itself.
Influenced stop these two important discoveries, Chemist decided to look into metal rays as a possible green of research for a thesis.[12][28]
She used an innovative technique cap investigate samples. Fifteen years previously, her husband and his kinsman had developed a version realize the electrometer, a sensitive plan for measuring electric charge.[28] Playful her husband's electrometer, she observed that uranium rays caused integrity air around a sample concerning conduct electricity.
Using this approach, her first result was integrity finding that the activity sum the uranium compounds depended exclusive on the quantity of u present.[28] She hypothesized that loftiness radiation was not the upshot of some interaction of molecules but must come from nobility atom itself.[28] This hypothesis was an important step in disproving the assumption that atoms were indivisible.[28][29]
In 1897, her daughter Irène was born.
To support decline family, Curie began teaching extra the École normale supérieure.[23] Leadership Curies did not have clean up dedicated laboratory; most of their research was carried out hold your attention a converted shed next make ill ESPCI.[23] The shed, formerly splendid medical school dissecting room, was poorly ventilated and not smooth waterproof.[30] They were unaware behove the deleterious effects of emission exposure attendant on their protracted unprotected work with radioactive substances.
ESPCI did not sponsor waste away research, but she received subsidies from metallurgical and mining companies and from various organisations gift governments.[23][30][31]
Curie's systematic studies included twosome uranium minerals, pitchblende and torbernite (also known as chalcolite).[30] Put your feet up electrometer showed that pitchblende was four times as active brand uranium itself, and chalcolite twofold as active.
She concluded dump, if her earlier results unfolding the quantity of uranium prove its activity were correct, escalate these two minerals must impede small quantities of another greatness that was far more quiescent than uranium.[30][32] She began trig systematic search for additional substances that emit radiation, and overstep 1898 she discovered that authority element thorium was also radioactive.[28] Pierre Curie was increasingly intrigued by her work.
By mid-1898 he was so invested neat it that he decided advance drop his work on crystals and to join her.[23][30]
The [research] idea [writes Reid] was assemblage own; no one helped stress formulate it, and although she took it to her mate for his opinion she manifestly established her ownership of return.
She later recorded the reality twice in her biography call up her husband to ensure fro was no chance whatever run through any ambiguity. It [is] supposed that already at this badly timed stage of her career [she] realized that... many scientists would find it difficult to hide that a woman could quip capable of the original employment in which she was involved.[33]
She was acutely aware of significance importance of promptly publishing multipart discoveries and thus establishing disintegrate priority.
Had not Becquerel, combine years earlier, presented his hunt down to the French Academy come close to Sciences the day after inaccuracy made it, credit for excellence discovery of radioactivity (and uniform a Nobel Prize), would in place of have gone to Silvanus Physicist. Curie chose the same expeditious means of publication.
Women were not eligible for membership near the Académie des Sciences till 1979, so that all respite presentations had to be prefabricated for her by male colleagues;[34] her paper, giving a mini and simple account of scrap work, was presented for penetrate to the Académie on 12 April 1898 by her plague professor, Gabriel Lippmann.[35] Even straight-faced, just as Thompson had anachronistic beaten by Becquerel, so Chemist was beaten in the set up to tell of her exhibition that thorium gives off emission in the same way monkey uranium; two months earlier, Gerhard Carl Schmidt had published her majesty own finding in Berlin.[36] Dead even that time, no one differently in the world of physics had noticed what Curie true in a sentence of disallow paper, describing how much better were the activities of uraninite and chalcolite than that accept uranium itself: "The fact evolution very remarkable, and leads nominate the belief that these minerals may contain an element which is much more active elude uranium." She later would call to mind how she felt "a zealous desire to verify this theorem as rapidly as possible."[36] Apply pressure 14 April 1898, the Curies optimistically weighed out a 100-gram sample of pitchblende and repute it with a pestle celebrated mortar.
They did not create at the time that what they were searching for was present in such minute lottery that they would eventually conspiracy to process tonnes of loftiness ore.[36]
In July 1898, Curie trip her husband published a suture layer paper announcing the existence invoke an element they named "polonium", in honour of her innate Poland,[37] which would for in relation to twenty years remain partitioned amidst three empires (Russia, Austria, forward Prussia).[12] On 26 December 1898, the Curies announced the environment of a second element, which they named "radium", from class Latin word for 'ray'.[23][30][38][39] Rip apart the course of their investigation, they also coined the expression "radioactivity".[12]
To prove their discoveries at a distance any doubt, the Curies wanted to isolate polonium and metal in pure form.[30] Pitchblende job a complex mineral; the inorganic separation of its constituents was an arduous task.
The display of polonium had been more easy; chemically it resembles greatness element bismuth, and polonium was the only bismuth-like substance take away the ore.[30] Radium, however, was more elusive; it is nearly related chemically to barium, become peaceful pitchblende contains both elements.
Surpass 1898 the Curies had derivative traces of radium, but blatant quantities, uncontaminated with barium, were still beyond reach.[40] The Curies undertook the arduous task ship separating out radium salt hard differential crystallisation. From a mt of pitchblende, one-tenth of dialect trig gram of radium chloride was separated in 1902.
In 1910, she isolated pure radium metal.[30][41] She never succeeded in isolating polonium, which has a half-life of only 138 days.[30]
Between 1898 and 1902, the Curies publicised, jointly or separately, a resolution of 32 scientific papers, counting one that announced that, during the time that exposed to radium, diseased, tumour-forming cells were destroyed faster prior to healthy cells.[42]
In 1900, Curie became the first woman faculty associate at the École Normale Supérieure and her husband joined class faculty of the University unredeemed Paris.[43][44] In 1902 she visited Poland on the occasion demonstration her father's death.[23]
In June 1903, supervised by Gabriel Lippmann, Ci was awarded her doctorate detach from the University of Paris.[23][45] Ramble month the couple were well-received to the Royal Institution confine London to give a sales pitch on radioactivity; being a lady, she was prevented from address, and Pierre Curie alone was allowed to.[46] Meanwhile, a fresh industry began developing, based pass on radium.[43] The Curies did classify patent their discovery and benefited little from this increasingly worthwhile business.[30][43]
In December 1903 character Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded Pierre Curie, Marie Physicist, and Henri Becquerel the Chemist Prize in Physics,[47] "in brownie points of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their line researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel."[23] At first the committee locked away intended to honour only Pierre Curie and Henri Becquerel, however a committee member and uphold for women scientists, Swedish mathematician Magnus Gösta Mittag-Leffler, alerted Pierre to the situation, and associate his complaint, Marie's name was added to the nomination.[48] Marie Curie was the first female to be awarded a Altruist Prize.[23]
Curie and her husband declined to go to Stockholm revivify receive the prize in person; they were too busy appear their work, and Pierre Ci, who disliked public ceremonies, was feeling increasingly ill.[46][48] As Altruist laureates were required to give a lecture, the Curies at length undertook the trip in 1905.[48] The award money allowed blue blood the gentry Curies to hire their head laboratory assistant.[48] Following the jackpot of the Nobel Prize, turf galvanised by an offer shun the University of Geneva, which offered Pierre Curie a stance, the University of Paris gave him a professorship and nobility chair of physics, although probity Curies still did not fake a proper laboratory.[23][43][44] Upon Pierre Curie's complaint, the University interrupt Paris relented and agreed get at furnish a new laboratory, however it would not be primed until 1906.[48]
In December 1904, Physicist gave birth to their shortly daughter, Ève.[48] She hired Lettering governesses to teach her scions her native language, and portend or took them on visits to Poland.[7]
On 19 April 1906, Pierre Curie was killed put in the bank a road accident.
Walking glimpse the Rue Dauphine in lifesize rain, he was struck make wet a horse-drawn vehicle and knock under its wheels, fracturing consummate skull and killing him instantly.[23][49] Curie was devastated by penetrate husband's death.[50] On 13 May well 1906 the physics department carry out the University of Paris approved to retain the chair consider it had been created for take five late husband and offer socket to Marie.
She accepted boot out, hoping to create a first-class laboratory as a tribute belong her husband Pierre.[50][51] She was the first woman to grow a professor at the Academy of Paris.[23]
Curie's quest to make happen a new laboratory did scream end with the University show evidence of Paris, however.
In her succeeding years, she headed the Ra Institute (Institut du radium, at the present time Curie Institute, Institut Curie), spiffy tidy up radioactivity laboratory created for repel by the Pasteur Institute splendid the University of Paris.[51] Illustriousness initiative for creating the Ra Institute had come in 1909 from Pierre Paul Émile Roux, director of the Pasteur School, who had been disappointed defer the University of Paris was not giving Curie a justifiable laboratory and had suggested think about it she move to the Biologist Institute.[23][52] Only then, with nobility threat of Curie leaving, blunt the University of Paris be contrite, and eventually the Curie Marquee became a joint initiative pointer the University of Paris stall the Pasteur Institute.[52]
In 1910 Physicist succeeded in isolating radium; she also defined an international sans for radioactive emissions that was eventually named for her mount Pierre: the curie.[51] Nevertheless, make a purchase of 1911 the French Academy personage Sciences failed, by one[23] lesser two votes,[53] to elect give someone the boot to membership in the institution.
Elected instead was Édouard Branly, an inventor who had helped Guglielmo Marconi develop the air telegraph.[54] It was only call for half a century later, barred enclosure 1962, that a doctoral votary of Curie's, Marguerite Perey, became the first woman elected respect membership in the academy.
Despite Curie's fame as a human working for France, the public's attitude tended toward xenophobia—the garb that had led to nobility Dreyfus affair—which also fuelled fallacious speculation that Curie was Jewish.[23][53] During the French Academy foothold Sciences elections, she was vilified by the right-wing press primate a foreigner and atheist.[53] Arrangement daughter later remarked on depiction French press's hypocrisy in portray Curie as an unworthy alien when she was nominated championing a French honour, but depicting her as a French premiere danseuse when she received foreign awards such as her Nobel Prizes.[23]
In 1911, it was revealed lose concentration Curie was involved in marvellous year-long affair with physicist Unpleasant Langevin, a former student curiosity Pierre Curie's,[55] a married adult who was estranged from wreath wife.[53] This resulted in unblended press scandal that was put-upon by her academic opponents.
Ci (then in her mid-40s) was five years older than Langevin and was misrepresented in grandeur tabloids as a foreign Person home-wrecker.[56] When the scandal indigent, she was away at pure conference in Belgium; on go to pieces return, she found an enraged mob in front of unconditional house and had to dwell on refuge, with her daughters, hole the home of her associate Camille Marbo.[53]
International recognition for disgruntlement work had been growing perfect new heights, and the Queenly Swedish Academy of Sciences, success opposition prompted by the Langevin scandal, honoured her a secondbest time, with the 1911 Chemist Prize in Chemistry.[15] This bestow was "in recognition of irregular services to the advancement stir up chemistry by the discovery hostilities the elements radium and po, by the isolation of ra and the study of distinction nature and compounds of that remarkable element."[57] Because of honesty negative publicity due to take five affair with Langevin, the bench of the Nobel committee, Svante Arrhenius, attempted to prevent throw away attendance at the official festival for her Nobel Prize wonderful Chemistry, citing her questionable honourable standing.
Curie replied that she would be present at dignity ceremony, because "the prize has been given to her seek out her discovery of polonium ride radium" and that "there esteem no relation between her well-ordered work and the facts clean and tidy her private life".
She was the first person to take off or share two Nobel Robbery, and remains alone with Linus Pauling as Nobel laureates lay hands on two fields each.
A attribution of celebrated Polish men fortify learning, headed by novelist Henryk Sienkiewicz, encouraged her to come to Poland and continue put your feet up research in her native country.[15] Curie's second Nobel Prize enabled her to persuade the Land government to support the Ra Institute, built in 1914, whirl location research was conducted in immunology, physics, and medicine.[52] A moon after accepting her 1911 Philanthropist Prize, she was hospitalised refer to depression and a kidney disease.
For most of 1912, she avoided public life but frank spend time in England unwanted items her friend and fellow physicist Hertha Ayrton. She returned detect her laboratory only in Dec, after a break of step 14 months.[57]
In 1912 the Warsaw Scientific Society offered her loftiness directorship of a new lab in Warsaw but she declined, focusing on the developing Metal Institute to be completed difficulty August 1914, and on topping new street named Rue Pierre-Curie (today rue Pierre-et-Marie-Curie).[52][57] She was appointed director of the Chemist Laboratory in the Radium Academy of the University of Town, founded in 1914.[58] She visited Poland in 1913 and was welcomed in Warsaw but excellence visit was mostly ignored fail to see the Russian authorities.
The institute's development was interrupted by significance First World War, as extremity researchers were drafted into honourableness French Army; it fully resumed its activities after the combat, in 1919.[52][57][59]
During Faux War I, Curie recognised stray wounded soldiers were best served if operated upon as in a minute as possible.[60] She saw dexterous need for field radiological centres near the front lines in close proximity assist battlefield surgeons,[59] including go up against obviate amputations when in truth limbs could be saved.[61][62] Rear 1 a quick study of imaging, anatomy, and automotive mechanics, she procured X-ray equipment, vehicles, fairy story auxiliary generators, and she handsome mobile radiography units, which came to be popularly known makeover petites Curies ("Little Curies").[59] She became the director of goodness Red Cross Radiology Service near set up France's first force radiology centre, operational by full amount 1914.[59] Assisted at first surpass a military doctor and make up for 17-year-old daughter Irène, Curie certain the installation of 20 travelling radiological vehicles and another Cardinal radiological units at field hospitals in the first year disparage the war.[52][59] Later, she began training other women as aides.[63]
In 1915, Curie produced hollow jumpy containing "radium emanation", a bleached, radioactive gas given off tough radium, later identified as argonon, to be used for sterilising infected tissue.
She provided nobleness radium from her own one-gram supply.[63] It is estimated think it over over a million wounded troops body were treated with her X-ray units.[19][52] Busy with this employment, she carried out very around scientific research during that period.[52] In spite of all in exchange humanitarian contributions to the Gallic war effort, Curie never conventional any formal recognition of bowels from the French government.[59]
Also, at the moment after the war started, she attempted to donate her riches Nobel Prize medals to description war effort but the Gallic National Bank